Component 4 - Preparation and training methods

Training methods

Inevitably, specific skills relevant to the sport will also be developed during training sessions, but the following methods of training develop the physical components of fitness.

Fartlek training

As the title suggests, this is a period of training that lays the foundations for the main competitions. This period of training is characterised by the volume of training, which gives you the necessary base levels of skills and fitness required for the competitive phase. E.g. A sprinter would build strength during the preparatory phase in order that there is power development in the competitive season with specific speed development when peaking for a competition.

Special Preparation Period - associated with the end of pre-season

Fartlek is a Swedish word meaning ‘speedplay’. Fartlek is training at varying intensities, at different distances, often at different gradients. This method of training is used to develop all the energy systems. Fartlek is often used by games players to replicate the varying intensities that occur during matches.

Examiner’s tip – it is important to state the intensities and distance covered when explaining the type of fartlek session specific to the sport. Fartlek sessions can vary greatly, e.g. a netballer would have more shorter bursts of high-intensity running (90-100% effort) over 10-15 minutes in their session than a midfield footballer who would have longer distances of intense (85-95%) exercise over distances of 60-80 m.

Continuous training

This method of training predominantly develops the aerobic system by working continuously at the same intensity. Endurance athletes such as marathon runners, road cyclists and triathletes predominantly use the continuous method of training.

Examiner’s tip – When using continuous training as an example, always refer to the specific intensity and duration of session, e.g. a cyclist working between 65-75% of maximum heart rate for 3 hours.

Plyometrics

Examples of plyometric exercises

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Weight training

When weight training, the three components of fitness that are developed are strength, power and muscular endurance. It must also be noted that any increase in leg strength and leg power will often result in subsequent speed and agility improvements. This is because all of these components of fitness use fast-twitch type iib fibres. Therefore, any gains in one component can also influence the other components.

In order to train for strength, power and muscular endurance, sets, reps, weight and recovery must all be applied differently. It is also vital that an athlete has knowledge of their ‘1 rep max’ for any weight-training exercise undertaken.

Weight training for strength

Because strength is a maximal activity, the weight training must also be carried out close to the maximum in order to recruit the strongest fast-twitch fibres (type iib). A typical exercise to develop shoulder strength would be the shoulder press.

Exercise	Sets	Reps	Weight (% of 1 rep max)	Recovery time between sets
Shoulder press	3	3	95%	3-4 mins

The weight is close to the 1 rep max; hence the number of repetitions is low. Also a 4-minute recovery allows almost full recovery of the creatine phosphate (CP) system.

Weight training for power

As with strength, power is generally working close to maximum effort. However, because it is a combination of speed and strength, the actual weight lifted is slightly less than is often used at strength. This reduction in weight allows the movement/exercise to be carried out with greater speed, thus placing greater emphasis on power development. Power training also attempts to develop the fast-twitch Type iib fibres.

An excellent example of a power exercise is the power clean, which is a full-body exercise widely used in athletics events such as sprinting, long jump and shot putt.

A Power Clean

Exercise	Sets	Reps	Weight (% of 1 rep max)	Recovery time between sets
Power clean	3	6	80%	3-4 mins

Working at 80% of the athletes 1 rep max allows the movement to be carried out highly explosively, which maximises power development. As with strength, the recovery period is 3-4 minutes to allow full replenishment of the CP system.

Weight training for muscular endurance

Muscular endurance exercises are often used to improve muscle tone or when there is repetition, using similar muscle groups over a period of time, e.g. during a judo bout. When training for muscular endurance both fast-twitch and slow-twitch fibres are recruited and hence the predominant energy systems used are both the anaerobic glycolysis system and the aerobic system. Because muscular endurance involves working a muscle or muscle group over a prolonged period, the following example is typical of an exercise that could be used:

Exercise	Sets	Reps	Weight (% of 1 rep max)	Recovery time between sets
Shoulder press	4	16	50-60%	1 min

Both the sets and reps are higher than would be used when strength training, only lifting far less weight in order to complete the high number of repetitions. Also because of the endurance nature of the exercise, the recovery period between sets is reduced to constantly stress the working muscles. This form of exercise is often associated with ‘muscle pump’ and a build-up of lactic acid. Lactic acid build-up is due to the athlete using ATP from the anaerobic glycolysis system.

Interval training

Interval training is any form of training with a set recovery period built into the session. Hence weight training, circuit training, and plyometrics are forms of interval training. Nevertheless, most coaches associate interval training with periods of running, swimming, rowing etc. with periods of rest between exercises. As a result interval training can develop any energy system, depending on the intensity and duration of the exercise or the length of recovery between bouts of exercise.

Interval training for aerobic fitness

Middle-distance runners, rowers as well as cyclists commonly use this type of interval training. Because the development of aerobic system is the main aim of this type of interval session, working at an intensity close to the anaerobic threshold is essential. The following example could be applied:

Exercise	Sets	Reps	Weight (% of 1 rep max)	Recovery time between sets
800m intervals	1	6	80-85%	2 mins

Such a session would mean the athlete is constantly working very close to their anaerobic threshold or even slightly beyond it towards the end of the repetition. However, the predominant energy system being stressed through the running is the aerobic system.

Interval training for speed

Speed is a maximum activity and therefore when training, it is important to train as close to maximum effort as possible. Examples of sportspeople who would use such a method would be sprinters, 50m swimmers and sprint track cyclists as well as wingers in many team games. As stated, it is vital when training for speed that 100% effort is put into the training, so it is important that sufficient recovery time is given to allow full replenishment of CP. A typical session for a 100m sprinter would be:

Exercise	Sets	Reps	Weight (% of 1 rep max)	Recovery time between sets
40m intervals from startring blocks	1	5	100%	4 mins

This type of session is developing the explosive speed out of the starting blocks uptown the 40 metres. The effort has to be 100% to replicate what is happening in a race with long recovery periods for almost full replenishment of CP.

Circuit training

Circuit training can include a variety of exercises that can be either sport-specific or fitness-related. It is important that whatever the type of circuit is being carried out, the time on each station meets the needs of the sport or activity. Below are two examples of how circuit training can be applied very differently, depending on what the sporting needs of the individual are.

A general fitness circuit

An individual on a general fitness circuit, working on muscular endurance would work the various muscle groups for an extended period of time (up to a minute). The recovery time between stations would be relatively short (30 seconds) to continually stress the anaerobic glycolysis and aerobic systems.

A speed and agility circuit

An individual working on speed and agility would be carrying the activities on the stations at almost 100% effort. This means the time on each station would be far shorter because of limited stores of creatine phosphate. Each continuous bout of exercise on each station should not last longer than 10 seconds. In order to overcome this, an individual may include a short recovery period within the time on each station. For example, when using agility ladders on a particular station, the performer will walk back slowly before another repetition to allow recovery of CP stores. Also a longer recovery time between stations may be necessary to fully replenish CP stores before the next bout of maximal exercise.

Quick Check

Methods of training include: -

Fartlek – usually used for games players because of the varying speeds, distances etc. used in the training. The session should replicate the amount of sprinting, jogging etc. that takes place in the actual game situation specific to the position played. This method of training develops all the energy systems.
Continuous – this is an aerobic method of training used primarily by long-distance athletes in athletics, swimming, cycling etc. It involves working at a fairly continuous intensity over a long period of time below the anaerobic threshold.
Interval – interval training can vary greatly, depending on the intended training goal. The energy system or systems targeted will depend on the intensity and duration of the exercise. For example, developing sprint speed will involve distances no more than 60-80 m with a long recovery, while aerobic development would use distances over 800 m with a shorter recovery time between repetitions.
Plyometrics – These methods of training primarily develop power and speed. Exercise mainly uses jumping, hopping and resistance-type activities. All repetitions should be carried out at 100% effort with enough recovery between sets and repetitions to allow replenishment of PC stores.
Weight training – Weight training can be used to develop strength, power or muscular endurance. To develop strength, high weight (80-100% 1 rep max) should be used with 1-6 repetitions with 3-4 min recovery. To develop power, high weight (70-90% 1 rep max) should be used with 2-8 repetitions carried out as fast as possible with 3-4 min recovery. To develop muscular endurance, a medium to low weight should be used (40-60% of 1 rep max) with 10-20 repetitions with only a 1-2 minute recovery.
Circuit – Circuit training can be adapted to meet the needs and the goals of the individual. Circuits can be general fitness or sports specific depending on the activities used on each of the stations. The energy systems targeted depend on the intensity and duration of each of the stations and the recovery between each station.

Designing a training programme

Training programmes can be designed for general fitness purposes, such as when individuals attend fitness and well-being suites. Training programmes can also be highly specialised and specific to the sport and the individual sportsperson. Nevertheless, the processes of planning the training programmes are generally the same.

The following points should be carried out in order to carry out a successful and safe training programme.

Health check

A health check prior to undertaking any form of exercise programme is vital for the safety of the individual carrying out the programme. While it is not a common practice in most sports, particularly below elite levels, a health check is always a requirement for any individual who is joining a health, fitness and well-being suite. Nevertheless within some sports, the health check carried out often involves some very basic tests and includes the following checks.

Physical Activity Readiness Questionnaire (PAR-Q) (see Appendix 1). This is a questionnaire to find out about the general health status of the individual and the type of lifestyle they currently lead.
Measurement of height and weight resulting in the calculation of Body Mass Index (BMI) (see Appendix 2).
Measurement of resting heart rate.
Measurement of blood pressure.
Measurement of blood pressure.
% Body fat measurement (see Fitness testing).

In sports where millions of pounds are spent on players, such a football, a medical examination before a transfer takes place can also involve full body MRI scanning to look for any injuries or medical conditions that could inhibit future performance.

Fitness testing of the components specific to the sport or activity

The type of testing will depend on the whether the intended training is for general health or for sport-specific purposes. The sport-specific tests are more likely to be maximal and represent the components of fitness specific to the individual’s sport, for example, a 30m sprint for a wing in rugby union. If the sportsperson is at an elite level, then laboratory testing is often used, providing far more accurate, reliable and valid test results. A drawback with such laboratory testing is the highly-specialised equipment and the subsequent cost, e.g. Wingate cycle ergometer test for a sprint track cyclist. For general fitness purposes, sub-maximal tests are often used, particularly if the individual has not carried any training for a long period of time. This is inevitably a safer method of training because it reduces the potential health risks that a maximal test may pose. The PWC 170 is an example of such a test (see Fitness testing).

Setting goals/targets for improvement

Goal setting is important in any training programme because of the motivation and sense of achievement that can be gained when an individual reaches a goal or can see improvement towards a goal. When goal setting, to ensure correct application of the goal, we apply the SMART principle. SMART simply stands for Specific, Measurable, Achievable, Realistic and Timely when applied to an exercise programme (see section on Goal setting). hyperlink to goal setting

Planning and carrying out the training programme

How the training programme is carried out will depend on the goals set by the individual. This will dictate the methods of training used and how the principles of training are applied. An example would be that an individual carrying out a training programme for health-related reasons is more likely to use a fitness suite and work on cardio-vascular type exercises with weight training to develop muscle tone. While an individual training for sport-specific goals will often use more specific training methods related to their sport, e.g. plyometrics for developing leg power. In terms of the application of the principles of training, progression and overload are inevitably important for improvements to be made in a health-related training programme. However, the speed of progression and the amount of overload applied would often not be as great as a sport-specific training programme.

This is only an outline of how the methods and principles of training should be applied. See the rest of the information on training for full application of methods and principles of training. (Hyperlink to principles of training section)

Retesting

After a period of training then retesting of the fitness components should be carried out. The processes for retesting are exactly the same as the start of the training programme. Results can be compared to the previous results to monitor any progress that has been made. As a result of the retest scores, the training programme can be adjusted and developed to allow for further improvements to be made. Also an individual can observe if the goals previously set have been achieved and further goals can then be set.

Quick Check

The following procedures should be carried out when developing a training programme for health-related or sport-specific reasons.

Check the individual’s health
Fitness test relevant components of fitness
Set goals
Carry out programme, applying the methods and principles of training appropriate to the goals set
Retest fitness and re-evaluate goals.

Environmental training

Altitude training

Pre-competition altitude training has long been used as training strategy to enhance performance in endurance athletes. The theory for using altitude training is based on the assumption that because of decreased levels of O2 at altitude, the body will adapt to such conditions in a variety of ways. Research has suggested that aerobic performance may be enhanced as a consequence of increases in red blood cell count (RBC) or erythrocytes, serum erythropoietin (EPO), and haemoglobin (Hb) concentration. These enhance the oxygen-carrying capacity and maximal oxygen uptake (VO2 max) of an athlete training at altitude, allowing them to train and perform better after returning to sea level or to lower altitude.

Types of altitude training

Live high, train high

This is the most traditional of all the methods used, although there is a variation in research as to how beneficial this is to all athletes.

Live high, train low

Sleep high to get EPO, red blood cell concentration increases.
Train low to keep intensity of training up, and keep neuromuscular adaptations (capillary and mitochondrial density).
Research has suggested the following physiological adaptations occurred:

after 4 weeks there was an increased VO2max, 5k performance, and increased red blood cell count.
also, a significant increase in EPO concentration and haemoglobin concentration.

High, high/low

Instead of doing all of the training at low altitudes, athletes live at high altitude, do easy to moderate work at high altitude, and only come down for hard workouts (1-3 times a week).

Benefits have included:

almost identical results to live high, train low.
at high altitude, the inability to do hard workouts at the same intensity as at low altitudes may be deciding factor on whether performance improves or not.

The problems associated with purely training at high altitude are:

depressed motor unit recruitment, i.e. body cannot work as hard
lower cardiac output
VO2max.

Artificial types of altitude training

These include individuals or groups spending time in:

altitude tents
altitude house
altitude chambers.

How the artificial types of altitude training are used

Intermittent hypoxic exposure (IHE) and intermittent ypoxic training (IHT) – IHE or periodic exposure to hypoxia is defined as an exposure to hypoxia lasting from seconds to up to 8 hours, which is repeated over several days to weeks. These intermittent hypoxic bouts are separated by a return to normal oxygen conditions. IHE can be combined with hypoxic training sessions to produce intermittent hypoxic training IHT. IHT is becoming more widely used within different sports in order to gain the benefits of altitude training.

Physiological adaptations to altitude training

Altitude causes hypoxia (an inadequate supply of oxygen to body tissues). At altitude, the partial pressure of oxygen (PO2) is lower than at sea level. This means there is less oxygen per volume of air. Diffusion is the movement of a gas from an area of high concentration to low concentration. The speed of diffusion of oxygen into the blood depends on the pressure difference between O2 inside the lungs (alveoli) and within the capillaries. For example, at the top of Mount Everest – each lungful of air contains only around a third of the oxygen compared to sea level, therefore the rate of diffusion of O2 into the blood will be very slow in comparison to at sea level. This is why breathing apparatus have to be used and people can suffer with altitude sickness. Because of the reduced levels of oxygen at altitude, the body adapts to this and the following changes are often evident:

With less oxygen available there is an increase in the athletes’ ventilation rates, hence breathing becomes faster and deeper in the quest to get more oxygen into the lungs.
There is an increase in in red blood cell count. How this is achieved is explained within the next bullet point.
EPO production is stimulated when the oxygen supply to the kidney is reduced, which happens when the oxygen content of the blood is reduced. EPO is responsible for the stimulation of red blood cell production in the red bone marrow, which causes an increase in blood haemoglobin concentration. Higher haemoglobin concentrations increase the oxygen-carrying capacity of the blood, which can therefore help aerobic performance.
Recombinant EPO is a performance-enhancing drug that is produced artificially or synthetically and is often used illegally in endurance sports such as marathon running and road cycling.

www.amgenrenaladvances.ca/patient/whatIsAnemia/causes.htm

Altitude training increases the myoglobin content in the muscles.
Training at altitude can also increase muscle buffering capacity – i.e. the capacity to buffer the blood lactate that builds up in the muscle during and after exercise.

Negative effects of altitude training

Studies have found that not all athletes have the same response to altitude training and, in fact, some see very few benefits. Furthermore, there are also some negative aspects to altitude training:

Decrease in plasma volume and increase in hematocrit (increases blood viscosity) means blood travels at a slower rate through arteries and arterioles.
Decrease in alkaline reserves, which can reduce the body’s ability to buffer acids in the body, e.g. lactic acid.
Increase in ventilatory response, i.e. people who live at sea level initially struggle to cope with hypoxia.
Can’t train as hard or recover as quickly.

Quick Check

Altitude causes hypoxia (an inadequate supply of oxygen to body tissues). At altitude, the partial pressure of oxygen (PO2) is lower than at sea level.
Types of training include live high train high, live high train low (seems to have the greatest benefits) live high, mix training between high and low, and artificial methods of altitude training.
Adaptations from altitude training include increase in red blood cell count as a result of increased EPO production.
Increased myoglobin content and the buffering capacity of muscles
There is variation in the benefits to individuals from altitude training and there are some negative aspects. These include:
- Decrease in plasma volume, decrease in alkaline reserve, increase in ventilatory response and athletes can’t train as hard or recover as quickly.

Warm-up and cool-down

Warm-up

A warm-up is generally used, by athletes and coaches, before an activity to prepare the body and mind for exercise and to reduce the risk of injury. A warm-up can be classified into two categories:

General warm-up – includes pulse raising, mobility and calisthenics static and dynamic stretching and general body movements that are related to the activity being used in a training session.
Specific warm-up – all of the above and a rehearsal of the skills of the actual activity, i.e. kicking a football, tennis serve or a golf swing.

Benefits of a warm-up:

prevents injury
prepares muscles for exercise
increases body temperature
increases heart rate, stroke volume and cardiac output
vasodilates blood vessels, increasing blood flow to the muscles
enables muscle and tendons to be more supple
increases speed of muscle action and relaxation
increases oxygen delivery to the muscles and helps haemoglobin release oxygen faster into the muscle cell
speeds up the production and the release of energy in the muscle tissue
increases the speed of impulses through nerves
a specific warm-up can facilitate the recruitment of motor units required for the type of physical activity.

Cool-down

The cool-down should consist of 5-10 minutes of jogging or low-intensity exercise in order to the remove any waste products such as lactic acid from the working muscles that have accumulated during physical activity. A cool-down also decreases body temperature gradually and also stops any blood pooling in the lower limbs. Static, passive and PNF stretching is also commonly used to increase the range of movement of joints and muscles.

The cool-down will also:

• aid in the removal of waste products, including lactic acid. and carbonic acid (CO2 in blood).
• prevent the blood from pooling, therefore reducing the risk of fainting and dizziness.
• reduce the level of adrenaline in the blood.

Lactic acid levels decrease more rapidly during active recovery rather than just stopping exercise. This is because the oxygen is responsible for breaking down the lactic acid, therefore the more oxygen present, the more lactic acid can be broken down. Also the lactic acid can be reconverted back to ATP at a faster rate, also helping recovery.

The types of activities that may be involved in a cool-down can be those that are used in a warm-up, only in reverse order. For example, sport-specific activities followed by stretching or flexibility exercises. During this time, athletes/performers may notice an increase in the range of movement (ROM) in and around a specific joint, compared to the ROM during the warm-up.

Quick Check

The method of training must develop the specific components of fitness or skills used in a particular sport or activity (specificity).
In order for improvements to be made, the training must be progressive and overload the body. For example, in weight training, increase the intensity of the leg squat by increasing the weight by 10 kg. Then increase by another 10 kg 2 weeks later.
Always provide specific information about the type of training and the intensity used, e.g. % of maximum heart rate when using continuous or fartlek or % of 1 rep max for strength, power or muscular endurance.
Provide specific information on the number of sets, repetitions, times, distances etc. when providing information on progression and overload.
Provide specific recovery times when applicable, e.g. 4 minutes’ rest after 1 set of weights when working on strength or power.

Exam Style Questions

Describe an appropriate method of training for power and explain how you could apply a principle of training to develop such power. (3)

Response lacking necessary detail:

Plyometrics is a method of training to develop power and you can increase intensity and duration to develop your power

What is wrong with the answer?

Plyometrics (this is not a description of a method of training) is a method of training to develop power and you can increase intensity and duration to develop your power. (Merely stating intensity and duration is not enough to obtain marks at AS level).

An example of what is required:

In order to develop power, an athlete could increase the intensity of the plyometric session by increasing the height of the hurdles by 5cm or the number of hurdles in a set, e.g. increasing the number of hurdles from 5 to 6.

As can be seen by from the example, providing specific information and an example demonstrates good knowledge and understanding of both the method of training and the application of the principles of training. It is often good practice to provide examples to support your answer even if the question does not specifically ask for it.

Past Paper Questions

Explain how you would develop a training programme for a sporting activity of your choice. (6)
"As a result of long-term anaerobic training, changes occur to the body systems ."
1. Describe an anaerobic training method that would be suitable for an activity of your choice. (3)
2. Providing specific examples, explain the use of two relevant training principles that you would apply to the above anaerobic training method to develop your performance. (4)
Identify an appropriate method of training for power and explain how you could apply two principles of training to develop that power. (3)
For your chosen sporting/exercise activity, identify a suitable method of training and provide examples of how overload and progression could be used within such training. (3)
Describe an appropriate warm-up for your sport or activity and explain the physiological benefits of such a warm-up. (6)