Sports psychology

Motivation

Motivation can be defined as the drive to take part and persist in an activity, it is a significant factor related to sports adherence. There are two main types of motivation:

• Intrinsic internal factors enjoyment
• Extrinsic external factors rewards

Intrinsic motivation

Participating in an activity for personal enjoyment, without an external reward. Taking part in sport for the ‘feel good factor’ is intrinsic motivation, a sense of accomplishment. Also intrinsic motivation can be a development of knowledge and desire to improve as well as an adrenaline rush (stimulation).

Extrinsic motivation

Participating in an activity due to an external influence, this can be in the form of tangible (physical reward – money, trophy) or intangible (non-physical – praise or coach gratification) rewards. For the athlete to stay motivated rewards need to be used effectively.

It is important that extrinsic motivation is used to increase intrinsic motivation by offering information for improvement. If extrinsic motivator is used as a control mechanism (large sums of money), it has detrimental effect on intrinsic motivation.

Achievement motivation

Achievement motivation is the concept that personality is linked to competitiveness, it centres on the extent to which an individual is motivated to attain success. There seem to be several types of goals against which success can be judged:

• Mastery or Task Goal – self improvement Performance goals e.g. PB in athletics
• Ego or Ability Goals – comparison with rivals Outcome goals e.g. winning the match
• Social Goals – social reinforcement e.g. approval by team mates, parents or coaches

Achievement motivation can be expressed as, the personality trait that is activated by any given situation. The situation comprise of the probability of success and the intrinsic value of success. Atkinson and McClelland (1976) stated that in any challenging situation, everyone would have both a ‘need to achieve’ (NACH) and a ‘need to avoid failure’ (NAF). Whichever feeling is the stronger will determine whether the task is accepted or declined.

The achievement motivation personality traits can be seen below:

Research has shown that if the chance of success is 50/50 and the incentive value is high Nach personality traits are demonstrated, in contrast performers with low Nach will experience greater anxiety and experience learned helplessness.

Competitiveness – sports specific achievement motivation

Competitiveness means the motivation to achieve in sport. Research suggests that athletes favour performance goals and non-athletes outcome goals(Sport Orientation Questionnaire SOQ). It is important to identify the link between competitiveness, confidence and goal setting.

Self-confidence

Self-confidence is defined as a person’s belief that they have the ability to meet the demands of the sport/activity. High Nach personality traits offer a self belief and coaches can influence athletes perceptions positively. Research regularly shows the most consistent difference between elite and less successful athletes is a greater self-confidence.

Bandura called situation specific self confidence, self-efficacy

• Self-confidence – general and stable personality trait
• Self-efficacy - specific to situation and variable

Self-efficacy will determine the choice of activity, level of effort and degree of persistence. High self-efficacy athletes are more likely to purse challenging goals, cope with pain, and persevere through setbacks.

Self-efficacy can be developed and change through four major types of information:

Performance accomplishments Strategies to improve self-efficacy	Success in previous experience – in difficult tasks and early success Dependable information – facts and achievement independently is better Best effect on improving self-efficacy Tasks should be appropriate with a high probability of success
Vicarious experiences Strategies to improve self-efficacy	Or modelling – learn by watching successful performance of difficult task. This can reduce anxiety as it demonstrates task can be completed Demonstration so important Modelling with peers not experts
Verbal persuasion Strategies to improve self-efficacy	Encourage performers self efficacy Effects are less than performance accomplishment and vicarious experiences Forms of feedback, team talks, encouragement Feedback – consistent, accurate, specific, realistic, progressive
Emotional arousal Strategies to improve self-efficacy	How you interpret arousal. If you fell somatic changes it might reduce self-efficacy and confidence Performers with less confidence will be hindered by arousal Anxiety reducing techniques should therefore increase self-efficacy Most difficult to change arousal levels. Knowledge and information about activity and feelings

Effective goal setting can increase self-efficacy as long as the goals are SMART and they must be individual. Also routines ensure individuals achieve control over arousal; these routines are sometimes linked to mental rehearsal, recalling performance accomplishments.